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[1] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “The island that now includes Haiti and the Dominican Republic…”

[2] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “The island that now includes Haiti and the Dominican Republic was first inhabited about 5000 bce, and farming villages were established about 300 bce.”

[3] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “In the 15th century between 100,000 and several million Taino and Ciboney lived on the island…”

[4] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “They based their economies on cassava (manioc) farming, fishing, and inter-island trade that included gold jewelry, pottery, and other goods.”

[5] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 "Italian navigator Christopher Columbus sighted Quisqueya on December 6, 1492, and named it La Isla Española (“The Spanish Island”), later Anglicized as Hispaniola."

[6] Ibid.
 "named it La Isla Española (“The Spanish Island”), later Anglicized as Hispaniola."

[7] Ibid.
 "Over the next few decades the Spanish enslaved vast numbers of Taino and Ciboney to mine for gold."

[8] Ibid.
 "Over the next few decades the Spanish enslaved vast numbers of Taino and Ciboney to mine for gold."

[9] Ibid.
 "European diseases and brutal working conditions devastated the Indigenous population."

[10] Ibid.
 "which fell to about 30,000 by 1514."

[11] Ibid.
 "by the end of the 16th century the group had virtually vanished."

[12] Ibid.
 "Thousands of enslaved people imported from other Caribbean islands met the same fate."

[13] Ibid.
 "many Spaniards left Hispaniola after the main gold mines were exhausted."

[14] Ibid.
 "Spanish settlement was mostly restricted to the eastern end of the island."

[15] Ibid.
 "French pirates in the mid-16th century entrenched themselves firmly on Tortue Island and other islands off the western end of Hispaniola."

[16] Ibid.
 "Permanent settlements began to develop, including plantations."

[17] Ibid.
 "In the 1660s the French founded Port-de-Paix in the northwest, and the French West Indies Corporation took control of the area."

[18] Ibid.
 "Landowners in western Hispaniola imported increasing numbers of enslaved Africans."

[19] Ibid.
 "Landowners in western Hispaniola imported increasing numbers of enslaved Africans."

[20] Ibid.
 "Landowners in western Hispaniola imported increasing numbers of enslaved Africans."

[21] Ibid.
 "which totaled about 5,000 in the late 17th century."

[22] Ibid.
 "The Treaty of Rijswijk (1697) formally ceded the western third of Hispaniola from Spain to France."

[23] The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation (2025). Slavery and Remembrance: A Guide to Sites, Museums, and Memory, Haitian Revolution.
 "French slave owners worked Africans as intensively and as brutally as anywhere in the Americas."

[24] Lawless et al. (2025).
 "the colony’s population and economic output grew rapidly during the 18th century."

[25] Ibid.
 "exporting sugar and smaller amounts of coffee, cacao, indigo, and cotton."

[26] Ibid.
 "By the 1780s nearly two-thirds of France’s foreign investments were based on Saint-Domingue."

[27] Ibid.
 "the number of stopovers by oceangoing vessels sometimes exceeded 700 per year."

[28] Sutherland, C. (2007). Haitian Revolution (1791-1804). BlackPast. https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/haitian-revolution-1791-1804/
 "Saint Domingue... had become France’s wealthiest overseas colony, generating more revenue for France than all 13 North American colonies for Great Britain."

[29] Ibid.
 "This wealth came largely because of the island’s production of sugar, coffee, indigo, and cotton generated by an enslaved labor force."

[30] Lawless et al. (2025).
 "In 1789 Saint-Domingue had an estimated population of 556,000."

[31] Ibid.
 "including roughly 500,000 enslaved Africans."

[32] Ibid.
 "The enslaved population, most of whom were bosal (African-born), were an admixture of West African ethnic groups."

[33] Ibid.
 "The vast majority were field-workers; more specialized groups included household servants, boilermen (at the sugar mills), and even overseers of other enslaved people."

[34] Ibid.
 "Enslaved people in the colony... endured lengthy, backbreaking workdays and often died from injuries, infections, and tropical diseases."

[35] Ibid.
 "Malnutrition and starvation also were common."

[36] The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation (2025).
 "French slave owners worked Africans as intensively and as brutally as anywhere in the Americas."

[37] Lawless et al. (2025).
 "plantation owners failed to plan adequately for food shortages, drought, and natural disasters."

[38] Ibid.
 "enslaved people were allowed scarce time to tend their own crops."

[39] Ibid.
 "Some enslaved people managed to escape into the mountainous interior, where they became known as Maroons and fought guerrilla battles against colonial militia."

[40] Ibid.
 "The development of plantation agriculture profoundly affected the island’s ecology."

[41] Ibid.
 "The Spanish altered the landscape by introducing cattle, pigs, and horses, which multiplied into large herds."

[42] Ibid.
 "Enslaved Africans toiled ceaselessly to clear forests for sugar fields."

[43] Ibid.
 "Soil productivity declined markedly in many areas, and formerly bountiful streams dried up."

[44] Ibid.
 "European investors and landowners remained unconcerned about or unaware of the long-term consequences."

[45] Ibid.
 "Haitian society was deeply fragmented by skin color, class, and gender."

[46] Ibid.
 "grands blancs (elite merchants and landowners, often of royal lineage)."

[47] Ibid.
 "petits blancs (overseers, craftsmen, and the like), and blancs menants (laborers and small farmers)."

[48] Ibid.
 "The affranchis, who were mostly mulattoes."

[49] Ibid.
 "They aspired to the economic and social levels of the Europeans."

[50] Ibid.
 "The colonists generally discriminated against them."

[51] Ibid.
 "the aspirations of the affranchis became a major factor in the colony’s struggle for independence."

[52] Ibid.
 "Some enslaved people managed to escape into the mountainous interior."

[53] Ibid.
 "the aspirations of the affranchis became a major factor in the colony’s struggle for independence."

[54] Ibid.
 "the aspirations of the affranchis became a major factor in the colony’s struggle for independence."

[55] Sutherland, C. (2007).
 "had become France’s wealthiest overseas colony."

[56] Ibid.
 "This wealth came largely... by an enslaved labor force."

[57] Lawless et al. (2025).
 "556,000... including roughly 500,000 enslaved Africans."

[58] The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation (2025). Slavery and Remembrance: A Guide to Sites, Museums, and Memory, Haitian revolution. https://slaveryandremembrance.org/articles/article/?id=A0066
 “Though long ignored by many who study the Age of Revolutions, the Haitian Revolution stands out as the only instance in which enslaved people and free people of color fought and defeated the French, Spanish, and British to end slavery and the slave trade.”

[59] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Vincent Ogé, a mulatto who had lobbied the Parisian assembly for colonial reforms, led an uprising in late 1790 but was captured, tortured, and executed.”

[60] Ibid.
 “In May 1791 the French revolutionary government granted citizenship to the wealthier affranchis, but Haiti’s European population refused to comply with the law.”

[61] Ibid.
 “Within two months isolated fighting broke out between Europeans and affranchis.”

[62] Sutherland, C. (2007). Haitian Revolution (1791-1804). For Blackpast. https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/haitian-revolution-1791-1804/
 “Led by former slave Toussaint l’Overture, the enslaved would act first, rebelling against the planters on August 21, 1791.”

[63] Ibid.
 “By 1792 they controlled a third of the island.”

[64] Lawless et al. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “In 1793 Léger Félicité Sonthonax, who was sent from France to maintain order, offered freedom to enslaved people who joined his army; he soon abolished slavery altogether.”

[65] Ibid.
 “The following year the French government confirmed his decision.”

[66] Ibid.
 “By 1795, Toussaint Louverture was widely known and admired by all racial groups.”

[67] Ibid.
 “In the late 1790s Toussaint Louverture, a military leader and formerly enslaved person… included negotiating with the British.”

[68] Sutherland, C. (2007). Haitian Revolution (1791-1804).
 “By 1801 l’Overture expanded the revolution beyond Haiti, conquering the neighboring Spanish colony of Santo Domingo… and declared himself Governor-General for life over the entire island of Hispaniola.”

[69] Ibid.
 “By 1802 the Haitian Revolution had outlasted the French Revolution which had been its inspiration.”

[70] Ibid.
 “Napoleon Bonaparte, now the ruler of France, dispatched General Charles Leclerc, his brother-in-law, and 43,000 French troops…”

[71] Lawless et al. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “Toussaint struggled for several months against Leclerc’s forces before agreeing to an armistice in May 1802; however, the French broke the agreement and imprisoned him in France. He died on April 7, 1803.”

[72] Sutherland, C. (2007). Haitian Revolution (1791-1804).
 “Jean-Jacques Dessalines, one of l’Overture’s generals and himself a former slave, led the revolutionaries at the Battle of Vertieres… where the French forces were defeated.”

[73] Ibid.
 “On January 1, 1804, Dessalines declared the nation independent and renamed it Haiti.”

[74] The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation (2025).
 “Revolutionaries in Saint-Domingue overthrew local slavery, defeated French, Spanish, and British forces sent to crush them.”

[75] Clammer, Paul (2016). Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 13.As Summarized in Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiti#:~:text=Later%20that%20year%20France%20withdrew,States%2C%20in%20the%20Louisiana%20Purchase.   “Later that year France withdrew its remaining 7,000 troops from the island and Napoleon gave up his idea of re-establishing a North American empire, selling Louisiana (New France) to the United States, in the Louisiana Purchase.”

[76] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Many European powers and their Caribbean surrogates ostracized Haiti, fearing the spread of slave revolts.”

[77] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “Many European powers and their Caribbean surrogates ostracized Haiti, fearing the spread of slave revolts… More important, nearly the entire population was utterly destitute—a legacy of slavery that has continued to have a profound impact on Haitian history.”

[78] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “Many European powers and their Caribbean surrogates ostracized Haiti… Haiti was plagued with… economic uncertainties.”

[79] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “Haiti was plagued with civil unrest… Civil war then broke out between Christophe and Alexandre Sabès Pétion…”

[80] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “…nearly the entire population was utterly destitute—a legacy of slavery that has continued to have a profound impact on Haitian history.”

[81] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “…a lack of skilled planners, craftsmen, and administrators.”

[82] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “The war had devastated many plantations and towns…”

[83] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “France recognized Haitian independence in 1825…”

[84] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “…in return for a large indemnity (nearly 100 million francs)….”

[85] Roy, D. & Labrador, R. C. (2024, June 25). Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/haitis-troubled-path-development
 “France only recognized an independent Haiti in 1825 after its former colony agreed to pay reparations that are estimated to be worth $21 billion in today’s dollars.”

[86] The Ransom: The Root of Haiti’s Misery: Reparations to Enslavers. Porter, C., Méheut, C., Apuzzo, M., & Gebrekidan, S. (2022, May 20). New York Times. https://web.archive.org/web/20250127164935/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/20/world/americas/haiti-history-colonized-france.html
 “This became known as Haiti’s ‘double debt’ — the ransom and the loan to pay it…”

[87] The Ransom: The Root of Haiti’s Misery: Reparations to Enslavers. Porter et al. (2022).
 “…to ensure the former colony took out a loan from young French banks to make the payments.”

[88] The Ransom: The Root of Haiti’s Misery: Reparations to Enslavers. Porter et al. (2022).
 “…a stunning load that boosted the fledgling Parisian international banking system…”

[89] The Ransom: The Root of Haiti’s Misery: Reparations to Enslavers. Porter et al. (2022).
 “Even the first installment was about six times the government’s income that year…”

[90] The Ransom: The Root of Haiti’s Misery: Reparations to Enslavers. Porter et al. (2022).
 “According to Ardouin’s records, the bankers’ commissions alone exceeded the Haitian government’s total revenues that year”

[91] Roy, D. & Labrador, R. C. (2024).
 “Over the next 122 years, as much as 80 percent of Haiti’s revenues went to paying off this debt.”

[92] The Ransom: The Root of Haiti’s Misery: Reparations to Enslavers. Porter et al. (2022).
 “…a stunning load that… helped cement Haiti’s path into poverty and underdevelopment.”

[93] Roy, D. & Labrador, R. C. (2024).
 “Freedom from France in 1804 did not mean an end to foreign powers intervening in Haiti.”

[94] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “From 1915 to 1934 Haiti was occupied by U.S. Marines.”

[95] Lawless, R., et al. (2025).
 “The United States claimed that its action was justified under the Monroe Doctrine … as well as on humanitarian grounds.”

[96] Selam Gebrekidan, Matt Apuzzo, Catherine Porter, Constant Méheut (2022). Invade Haiti, Wall Street Urged. The U.S. Obliged. The New York Times. https://web.archive.org/web/20250206065020/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/20/world/haiti-wall-street-us-banks.html
 “Next were the Americans, at times portraying their intervention as a way of defending Haitian ‘sovereignty.’”

[97] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “Behind the public explanations, another hand was hard at work as well… Wall Street.”

[98] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “French bankers… took so much in commissions, interest and fees that, in some years, their French shareholders’ profits were bigger than the Haitian government’s public works budget for the entire country.”

[99] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “Haiti proved profitable for Wall Street.”

[100] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “Under heavy pressure from National City Bank, Citigroup’s predecessor…”

[101] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “The United States dissolved Haiti’s parliament at gunpoint…”

[102] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “…controlled its finances for more than 30 years…”

[103] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “‘I helped make Haiti and Cuba a decent place for the National City Bank boys to collect revenues,’ Maj. Gen. Smedley Butler…”

[104] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “…American officers who controlled Haiti’s finances…”

[105] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “…spent more of its money on their own salaries and expenses than on public health…”

[106] Lawless, R., et al. (2025).
 “The Marines’ public works program included building new health clinics and sewerage systems, but most Haitians felt… efforts were inadequate.”

[107] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “…shipped a big portion of its earnings to bankers in New York…”

[108] Lawless, R., et al. (2025).
 “…a new constitution was introduced that permitted foreigners to own land in Haiti.”

[109] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “…National City Bank said it secured one of its largest margins… from a debt it controlled in Haiti.”

[110] Lawless, R., et al. (2025).
 “One effect of the Marine occupation was the nominal reestablishment of the mulatto elite’s control…”

[111] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “…killed thousands of people…”

[112] Lawless, R., et al. (2025).
 “Nominal reestablishment of the mulatto elite’s control of the government.”

[113] Lawless, R., et al. (2025).
 “Black Haitians… subjected to racist indignities… including the corvée (statute labor).”

[114] Lawless, R., et al. (2025).
 “…Roosevelt withdrew the Marines; however, the United States maintained direct fiscal control until 1941…”

[115] Lawless, R., et al. (2025).
 “…and indirect control over Haiti until 1947.”

[116] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “…left behind a country so poor… farmers… lived on a diet ‘close to starvation level,’ United Nations officials determined…”

[117] Lawless, R., et al. (2025).
 “…establishing U.S. financial and political domination.”

[118] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
 “Americans… became the dominant power in Haiti for decades to come.”

[119] Selam Gebrekidan, et al. (2022).
“…controlled its finances for more than 30 years…”

[120] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “In August 1934 U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt withdrew the Marines; however, the United States maintained direct fiscal control until 1941 and indirect control over Haiti until 1947.”

[121] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “François Duvalier—called ‘Papa Doc,’ he was a physician with an interest in Vodou—was elected president in September 1957.”

[122] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “In response, Duvalier organized a paramilitary group—the so-called Tontons Macoutes (‘Bogeymen’)—to terrorize the population.”

[123] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “In 1964 Duvalier, by then firmly in control, had himself elected president for life.”

[124] Debt Justice, 2024, UK. https://debtjustice.org.uk/countries-in-crisis/haiti-free-slavery-not-yet-free-debt
 “The western world strongly supported the Duvalier’s because they were anti-communist, and on the US’s side during the Cold War.”

[125] Debt Justice, 2024, UK. https://debtjustice.org.uk/countries-in-crisis/haiti-free-slavery-not-yet-free-debt
 “During the Cold War the corrupt and oppressive Duvalier regime were propped-up by the western world, including through the giving of loans. This debt was inherited by subsequent governments hindering development”

[126] Debt Justice, 2024, UK. https://debtjustice.org.uk/countries-in-crisis/haiti-free-slavery-not-yet-free-debt
 “This debt was inherited by subsequent governments hindering development”

[127] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Before his death in 1971, he designated his son, Jean-Claude… The regime of Jean-Claude Duvalier sought international respectability.”

[128] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “By the mid-1980s the ranks of the Tontons Macoutes had swelled… they failed to silence a series of countrywide demonstrations against high unemployment, poor living conditions, and the lack of political freedom.”

[129] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “In February 1986 Duvalier fled Haiti, with U.S. assistance, for France.”

[130] Debt Justice, 2024, UK. https://debtjustice.org.uk/countries-in-crisis/haiti-free-slavery-not-yet-free-debt
 “During the Cold War the corrupt and oppressive Duvalier regime were propped-up by the western world, including through the giving of loans.”

[130] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “A few months later Lieut. Gen. Prosper Avril took power, but his unstable regime ended in March 1990.”

[131] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “On December 16, 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, a leftist Roman Catholic priest, won the presidency by a landslide in what were widely reported to be the first free elections in Haiti’s history.”

[132] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Aristide’s reformist policies alienated the wealthy elite...”

[133] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “...after he had been in office less than eight months, Brig. Gen. Raoul Cédras deposed him and began to repress political opposition.”

[134] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “The United States and other nations imposed a trade embargo...”

[135] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “...but it was partly circumvented by smuggling through the Dominican Republic.”

[136] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Tens of thousands of Haitians attempted to flee their country in small boats bound for the U.S. state of Florida...”

[137] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “...but the vast majority were returned to Haiti.”

[138] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “In September 1994 the de facto government agreed to step down and allow some 20,000 U.S. troops to occupy the country.”

[139] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “...allow some 20,000 U.S. troops to occupy the country.”

[140] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Aristide dismantled the Haitian military... The United States and United Nations began forming a new Haitian police force...”

[141] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “...under pressure from the United States and other nations, [Aristide] pressed for free-market reforms.”

[142] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “...many of its farmers (the largest component of its workforce) struggled to compete with cheaper imported foodstuffs.”

[143] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Haiti benefited economically from a large influx of international aid and loans...”

[144] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “The Haitian police were thrust into their duties with inadequate preparation and were soon criticized for high incidences of corruption and unwarranted violence.”

[145] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Aristide dismantled the Haitian military—an act that would have been impossible without the presence of the U.S. military...”

[146] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti. “Elections in 1995 brought about the first peaceful transfer of power between elected presidents in Haiti’s history when René Préval, an associate of Aristide, was chosen to succeed him.”

[147] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti. “Préval, faced with political infighting among the groups that had supported Aristide, dissolved the parliament in 1999. The following year, in allegedly fraudulent elections, Préval’s supporters took control of the legislature, and Aristide was reelected president.”

[148] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti. “International aid sanctions, imposed after the 2000 elections, helped fuel a downward economic spiral that further impoverished an already desperate population.”

[149] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti. “Instances of disease (including HIV/AIDS) rose sharply, as did levels of lawlessness and violence.”

[150] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti. “Aristide faced serious economic and political problems on his return to power in 2001.”

[151] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti. “Open opposition to rule broke out in 2003. The bicentennial observance of Haiti’s independence, on January 1, 2004, was muted and was marked by street demonstrations.”

[152] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti. “By late February Aristide had fled the country in the face of a rebel insurgency and the loss of U.S. and French support.”

[153] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti. “Assistance from abroad slowed, and Haiti’s main source of income came from remittances from Haitians overseas.”

[154] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti. “Various human rights organizations accused MINUSTAH and the UN- and U.S.-trained Haitian National Police force of having committed atrocities against political demonstrators and other citizens... Most of the force was directed against groups in the poorest areas of Port-au-Prince that held strong allegiance to former president Aristide; those groups were often termed ‘gangs’ by MINUSTAH and the media.”

[155] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti. “But the subsequent free market reforms did absolutely nothing to fix it. Instead, they decimated the agriculture for domestic consumption, which had been its biggest employer.”

[156] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti. “Haiti’s main source of income came from remittances from Haitians overseas.”

[157] Debt Justice. (2024). Haiti: Free from slavery, not yet free from debt. https://debtjustice.org.uk/countries-in-crisis/haiti-free-slavery-not-yet-free-debt “Even as Haiti’s debt was cancelled new reconstruction funds were being offered in the form of loans rather than grants, storing up problems for the future.”

[158] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “In August and September 2008 a series of hurricanes ravaged the country, killing nearly 800 Haitians and displacing hundreds of thousands.”

[159] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Flooding destroyed crops, and the country had to rely on international relief efforts.”

[160] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Rebuilding was hampered by a lack of government action and continued violence both from Haitians and from MINUSTAH.”

[161] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Disaster struck again on January 12, 2010, when a devastating earthquake southwest of Port-au-Prince resulted in massive damage and considerable loss of life.”

[162] Iqbal, Y. (2021). Haiti: From Neo-Colonialism to Neoliberal Brutality. Socialist Project. https://socialistproject.ca/2021/07/haiti-neo-colonialism-to-neoliberal-brutality/
 “More than 300,000 people died in this tragedy.”

[163] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “In addition to a death toll of 316,000, more than one million were left homeless.”

[164] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “The day-to-day operation of the government was effectively halted for a time.”

[165] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Almost all the important national government buildings—including the National Palace (which was ultimately condemned and torn down in September 2012), the parliament building, the main post office, a number of ministries, and the city hall.”

[166] Iqbal, Y. (2021). Haiti: From Neo-Colonialism to Neoliberal Brutality. Socialist Project. https://socialistproject.ca/2021/07/haiti-neo-colonialism-to-neoliberal-brutality/
 “An international recovery effort produced close to $9-billion in aid.”

[167] Iqbal, Y. (2021). Haiti: From Neo-Colonialism to Neoliberal Brutality. Socialist Project. https://socialistproject.ca/2021/07/haiti-neo-colonialism-to-neoliberal-brutality/
 “Only 1% went to the Haitian government.”

[168] Iqbal, Y. (2021). Haiti: From Neo-Colonialism to Neoliberal Brutality. Socialist Project. https://socialistproject.ca/2021/07/haiti-neo-colonialism-to-neoliberal-brutality/
 “59% of the funds went to UN agencies, international NGOs, and private contractors.”

[169] Iqbal, Y. (2021). Haiti: From Neo-Colonialism to Neoliberal Brutality. Socialist Project. https://socialistproject.ca/2021/07/haiti-neo-colonialism-to-neoliberal-brutality/
 “The IMF used this crisis to increase Haiti’s dependency... continued to asphyxiate Haiti’s sovereignty.”

[170] Iqbal, Y. (2021). Haiti: From Neo-Colonialism to Neoliberal Brutality. Socialist Project. https://socialistproject.ca/2021/07/haiti-neo-colonialism-to-neoliberal-brutality/
 “Large chunks of the money that could have gone a long way to helping Haiti recover were frittered away through corruption at all levels.”

[171] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Beginning in mid-October 2010, nine months after the quake, a cholera outbreak did hit Haiti.”

[172] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “Killing thousands of people and afflicting thousands more over the course of several months.”

[173] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Voter turnout was low, and allegations of electoral fraud were widespread.”

[174] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Rural Haitians today feel the irrelevance of a government that has been unable to bring them security, health care, clean water, and a workable transportation system.”

[175] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Moïse had campaigned on a platform of economic growth.”

[176] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Almost from the outset, his administration was dogged by allegations of corruption.”

[177] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “In October 2019 he indefinitely postponed scheduled legislative elections.”

[178] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “In January 2020 the terms of the sitting legislators expired, and Haiti entered into a period of rule by presidential decree.”

[179] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “A wave of violent crime brought protesters into the streets in late 2020, and demonstrations intensified in early 2021.”

[180] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “On February 7, 2021, Moïse reported that he had foiled a coup attempt.”

[181] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Two days later he forced out three senior members of the Court of Cassation.”

[182] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “The latter event led Haiti’s judiciary to suspend work, which effectively froze the legal process across the country.”

[183] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “The opposition demanded Moïse’s resignation, but the president dug in and announced his intention to hold a referendum to amend the constitution.”

[184] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Perhaps the most pressing issue for the Haitian government was the investigation of Moïse’s assassination.”

[185] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “On July 20 Henry was sworn in as prime minister after Joseph agreed to step aside.”

[186] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Phone calls between himself and the alleged mastermind of the assassination plot.”

[187] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Henry fired the country’s justice minister and its top prosecutor when they tried to question him.”

[188] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Most people believe that the formal political organization of Haiti exists primarily on paper.”

[189] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Henry’s government struggled to provide the most basic services.”

[190] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “The rural class came to regard the government as having little relevance to their lives.”

[191] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Much of the population boycotts official elections, which are considered to be corrupt.”

[192] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “Almost from the outset, his administration was dogged by allegations of corruption.”

[193] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/3/13/who-are-haitis-gangs-and-what-do-they-want-all-you-need-to-know
 “Violence has displaced more than 200,000 people in Port-au-Prince, and the Haitian police lack the resources to handle the gangs.”

[194] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know. Al Jazeera.
 “They’ve been able to amass much more money independently of politicians and businessmen,” said Fatton. (Implies evolution from politicized origins)

[195] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know. Al Jazeera.
 “That includes through extortion, as well as kidnappings for ransom, drug trafficking and the smuggling of small weapons.”

[196] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know. Al Jazeera.
 “Violence has displaced more than 200,000 people in Port-au-Prince, and the Haitian police lack the resources to handle the gangs.”

[197] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know. Al Jazeera.
 “the gangs are so mixed in within the population that it’s going to be really tough for any multinational security mission to actually deal with them only by force”

[198] Wakefield, J., Giles, C., & Cheetham, J. (2025). Smugglers' paradise: How US guns flow to gang-ravaged Haiti. BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cly15pp707go
 “The assault rifles and pistols arrived in Haiti stashed in two cardboard boxes... They had come from the US, which one expert describes as a "supermarket" feeding an arms race among gangs”

[199] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know. Al Jazeera.
 “They are willing to use their arms for political purposes.”

[200] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know. Al Jazeera.
 “Violence has displaced more than 200,000 people...” (Supports notion of mass casualties and injuries)

[201] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know. Al Jazeera.
 “But both Fatton and de Alba stressed that Haitian armed groups are not only criminal in nature.”

[202] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know. Al Jazeera.
 “They also have a political aspect... willing to use their arms for political purposes.”

[203] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know. Al Jazeera.
 “Violence has displaced more than 200,000 people in Port-au-Prince, and the Haitian police lack the resources to handle the gangs.”

[204] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know. Al Jazeera.
 “the Haitian police lack the resources to handle the gangs.”

[205] Lawless, R., et al. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti
 “However, the first recruits were trained for only a few months before assuming their duties, and by the turn of the 21st century many had been implicated in violent crime or corruption associated with drug trafficking”

[206] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know. Al Jazeera.
 “Violence has displaced more than 200,000 people in Port-au-Prince...” (Scale resembles conflict-like conditions)

[207] Lawless, R., et al. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “the first recruits were trained for only a few months before assuming their duties...”

[208] Lawless, R., et al. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “by the turn of the 21st century many had been implicated in violent crime or corruption...”

[209] Lawless, R., et al. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “many had been implicated in violent crime or corruption...”

[210] Wakefield, J., Giles, C., & Cheetham, J. (2025). Smugglers' paradise: How US guns flow to gang-ravaged Haiti. BBC News.
 “They had come from the US, which one expert describes as a "supermarket" feeding an arms race among gangs”

[211] Wakefield, J., Giles, C., & Cheetham, J. (2025). Smugglers' paradise: How US guns flow to gang-ravaged Haiti. BBC News.
 “the vast majority of the 200 containers heading from South Florida to Haiti every week are not inspected.”

[212] Wakefield, J., Giles, C., & Cheetham, J. (2025). Smugglers' paradise: How US guns flow to gang-ravaged Haiti. BBC News.
 “lax laws, absent checks and suspected corruption used by traffickers to bypass a UN embargo.”

[213] Wakefield, J., Giles, C., & Cheetham, J. (2025). Smugglers' paradise: How US guns flow to gang-ravaged Haiti. BBC News.
 “feeding an arms race among gangs that have brought chaos to the Caribbean island nation.”

[214] Lawless, R., et al. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica.
 “The country is a major transshipment point for illegal drugs between South America and the United States.”

[215] Iqbal, Y. (2021). Haiti: From Neo-Colonialism to Neoliberal Brutality. Socialist Project. https://socialistproject.ca/2021/07/haiti-neo-colonialism-to-neoliberal-brutality/
 “The evidence showed thousands of cases of rape and torture as well as the dissemination of cholera – a disaster for Haiti.”

[216] Iqbal, Y. (2021). Haiti: From Neo-Colonialism to Neoliberal Brutality.
 “The peacekeeping force was incriminated in everything that was against its mandate.”

[217] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know.
 “the gangs are so mixed in within the population that it’s going to be really tough...”

[218] Kestler-D'Amours, J. (2024). Who are Haiti’s gangs and what do they want? All you need to know.
 “it’s going to be really tough for any multinational security mission to actually deal with them only by force”

[219] Lawless, R., Girault, C.A., MacLeod, M.J., Ferguson, J.A. (2025). Haiti. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Haiti.
 “More than two-thirds of the external trade is with the United States; other major trading partners include the Dominican Republic and Canada. Haiti has a substantial and chronic annual trade deficit.”

[220] Diana Roy and Rocio Cara Labrador. (2024). Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development. Council of Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/haitis-troubled-path-development
 “The country’s major industries include sugar refining, flour milling, and cement and textile manufacturing; textiles accounted for $1.15 billion, making up 85 percent of all exports in 2021.”

[221] Debt Justice. (2024). Haiti: Free of Slavery, Not Yet Free of Debt. https://debtjustice.org.uk/countries-in-crisis/haiti-free-slavery-not-yet-free-debt
 “Even as Haiti’s debt was cancelled new reconstruction funds were being offered in the form of loans rather than grants, storing up problems for the future.”

[222] Diana Roy and Rocio Cara Labrador. (2024). Haiti’s Troubled Path to Development. Council of Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/haitis-troubled-path-development
 “At the end of fiscal year 2021 (FY 2021), Haiti’s public debt totaled $5 billion, or nearly 30 percent of its GDP.”

[223] Perry, K. (2019). What is Really Behind the Crisis in Haiti? Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2019/9/30/what-is-really-behind-the-crisis-in-haiti
 “The US approach to the Haitian economy has been predominantly extractive. The country has an estimated $20bn of mineral deposits exploited mostly by US and Canadian corporations.”

[224] Debt Justice. (2024). Haiti: Free of Slavery, Not Yet Free of Debt. https://debtjustice.org.uk/countries-in-crisis/haiti-free-slavery-not-yet-free-debt
 “Even as Haiti’s debt was cancelled new reconstruction funds were being offered in the form of loans rather than grants, storing up problems for the future.”