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Section 2

[1] Eurostat. (2024). Fertility statistics. Statistics Explained. "The total fertility rate stood at 1.38 live births per woman in the EU in 2023." (p. 1)

[2] Eurostat. (2024). Population structure and ageing. Statistics Explained. "On 1 January 2024, the EU population was estimated at 449.3 million people and more than one-fifth (21.6%) of it was aged 65 years and over." (p. 1)

[3] Eurostat. (2024). EU population diversity by citizenship and country of birth. Statistics Explained. "The foreign-born population was younger than the native-born population... a greater proportion of relatively young working-age adults." (p. 8)

[4] Eurostat. (2024). Fertility statistics. Statistics Explained. "In 2022, the total fertility rate in the EU decreased again (1.46) and in 2023 reached a historic low of 1.38." (p. 1)

[5] Eurostat. (2024). Population structure and ageing. Statistics Explained. "Consistently low birth rates and higher life expectancy are transforming the shape of the EU's population pyramid... marked transition towards a much older population structure." (p. 1)

[6] Eurostat. (2024). Population structure and ageing. Statistics Explained. "The proportion of people of working age in the EU is shrinking while the relative number of those retired is expanding." (p. 1)

[7] Aiyar, S., Ebeke, C., & Shao, X. (2016). The impact of workforce aging on European productivity (IMF Working Paper No. WP/16/238). International Monetary Fund. "Projected workforce aging could reduce TFP growth by an average of 0.2 percentage points every year over the next two decades." (p. 2)

[8] Hansen, P. (2010). More barbwire or more immigration, or both? EU migration policy in the nexus of border security management and neoliberal economic growth. The Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations, 11(1), 89-99. "Between 2010 and 2030, at current immigration flows, the decline in the EU-25's working age population will entail a fall in the number of employed people of some 20 million." (p. 92)

[9] Eurostat. (2024). EU population diversity by citizenship and country of birth. Statistics Explained. "Foreign-born individuals had a higher proportion of working-age adults (15-64 years) compared to native-born populations." (p. 8)

[10] Nevradakis, M. (2018, September 5). Eight years after EU-IMF bailout, Greece sees poverty, suffering, and want. MintPress News. "The end-of-year projection for 2018 is 191.3%." (p. 5)

[11] Hermeto, J. R. (2022, August 31). With Western imperial decline, capitalism is in crisis – a new phase is emerging. The Grayzone. "The crushing of the anti-capitalist left-wing movement... gave capitalism a green light to impose itself on the peoples of the globe, leading to a colonization of their hearts and minds on a scale never seen before. This was the neoliberal phase." (p. 3)

[12] Eurostat. (2024). EU population diversity by citizenship and country of birth. Statistics Explained. "44.7 million people (9.9%) of the 449.3 million people living in the EU were born outside the EU." (p. 1)

[13] Aiyar, S., Ebeke, C., & Shao, X. (2016). The impact of workforce aging on European productivity (IMF Working Paper No. WP/16/238). International Monetary Fund. "Several scholars emphasize a drop-off in the productivity of senior workers related to lower levels of innovation, technology adoption and dissemination." (p. 6)

[14] Aiyar, S., Ebeke, C., & Shao, X. (2016). The impact of workforce aging on European productivity (IMF Working Paper No. WP/16/238). International Monetary Fund. "Feyrer (2008) shows that US innovators' median age is stable around 48 over the 1975-95 sample period whereas the median age of managers who adopt new ideas is lower at around 40." (p. 6)

[15] Aiyar, S., Ebeke, C., & Shao, X. (2016). The impact of workforce aging on European productivity (IMF Working Paper No. WP/16/238). International Monetary Fund. "Aksoy et al (2015) show that demographic structure affects innovation, with older workers (in particular the 50-59 age group) having a strong negative impact on total number of patent applications." (p. 6)

[16] Nevradakis, M. (2018, September 5). Eight years after EU-IMF bailout, Greece sees poverty, suffering, and want. MintPress News. "Pensions have been reduced 23 times during the years of the crisis." (p. 14)

[17] Hermeto, J. R. (2022, August 31). With Western imperial decline, capitalism is in crisis – a new phase is emerging. The Grayzone. "The West's exclusion of Russia from SWIFT... jumpstarts [China and Russia's] joint project to create an alternative [financial system]." (p. 6)

Section 3

[45] Emmer, P. C., & Lucassen, L. (2012). Migration from the Colonies to Western Europe since 1800. European History Online (EGO). "Other African slaves were forced to cultivate sugar cane in southern Spain and Portugal. Plantations with black slaves and white management became a model that was exported to the newly conquered islands in the Atlantic Ocean such as the Canaries, the Azores, Madeira and São Tomé." (p. 3)

[46] Migrants' Rights Network. (2024, June 19). Colonialism and imperialism cause displacement: World Refugee Day. "In 1884, European powers such as the US, the UK and France divided up Africa into colonies in order to extract their natural resources. Since Transatlantic enslavement had ended, 'European powers saw the chance to gain new colonies as a solution to maintaining power and wealth'." (p. 5)

[47] Emmer, P. C., & Lucassen, L. (2012). Migration from the Colonies to Western Europe since 1800. European History Online (EGO). "The demand for slaves increased in those areas where sugar cane was grown. Slowly but surely African slaves began to replace slaves from the East when the expansion of Turkey blocked the customary slave trade routes." (p. 2)

[48] Emmer, P. C., & Lucassen, L. (2012). Migration from the Colonies to Western Europe since 1800. European History Online (EGO). "Because of the traumatic and very violent decolonization of Algeria, France was the first country to experience an anti-Muslim backlash in both politics and society at large... The integration of migrants from North Africa turned out to be difficult, because about 35 per cent of the male immigrants and around 45 per cent of the female immigrants had not attended any school, and unemployment rates among the immigrants were high." (p. 7)

[49] Migrants' Rights Network. (2024, June 19). Colonialism and imperialism cause displacement: World Refugee Day. "During this colonisation, the artificial borders of colonies (and therefore future states) were decided effectively at random by the colonial powers, and were not based on existing (although fluid) tribal/ethnic boundaries: these newly imposed borders therefore split many tribal and ethnic communities in half, which has had violent legacies in terms of increasing inter-tribal tensions and leading to conflict." (p. 5)

[50] Migrants' Rights Network. (2024, June 19). Colonialism and imperialism cause displacement: World Refugee Day. "After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1922, the Middle East was divided up into puppet states called mandates: for instance Iraq, Jordan, Palestine and Egypt came under British control, and Lebanon and Syria came under French control. The sons of the Sharif of Mecca were installed as monarchs in Iraq, Syria and Jordan." (p. 8-9)

[52] O'Dwyer, C. (2018). A Postcolonial Analysis of the European 'Migrant Crisis'. E-International Relations. "The emergency narratives circumnavigate the ethical questions of racialisation of border control due to the perceived need for immediate action and thus allow for postcolonial subjectivities to be governed unquestionably in the name of national and European security." (p. 3)

[54] Migrants' Rights Network. (2024, June 19). Colonialism and imperialism cause displacement: World Refugee Day. "The fragmentation and carving up of East Africa into arbitrary nation-states by Western powers has had a lasting impact that continues to bring suffering to the region: millions of Somalis have been displaced by legacies of British and French colonialism." (p. 6)

[55] Eldridge, C., Kalter, C., & Taylor, B. (2023). Migrations of Decolonization, Welfare, and the Unevenness of Citizenship in the UK, France and Portugal. Past and Present. "In 1975, Portugal was the last European power to bow to the forces of decolonization. The independence of its colonies came after thirteen years of a costly colonial war on three fronts — Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau — which had left Portugal increasingly isolated and seen as a rogue state." (p. 156)

[56] Emmer, P. C., & Lucassen, L. (2012). Migration from the Colonies to Western Europe since 1800. European History Online (EGO). "It has been estimated that the number of refugees in the world between the early 1970s and the present has quadrupled from 3 to 12 million." (p. 9)

[57] Migrants' Rights Network. (2024, June 19). Colonialism and imperialism cause displacement: World Refugee Day. "In Libya, the creation of refugees can be traced to NATO's military campaign and regime change, resulting in two civil wars, the effects of which can still be felt to this day: violence and instability continues to ravage the country." (p. 7)

[58] Migrants' Rights Network. (2024, June 19). Colonialism and imperialism cause displacement: World Refugee Day. "In Sudan, British colonialism has laid the foundations for the suffering that we see today. An Israeli- and UAE-funded power-struggle between the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) and the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) has killed thousands and displaced millions." (p. 6-7)

[59] O'Dwyer, C. (2018). A Postcolonial Analysis of the European 'Migrant Crisis'. E-International Relations. "The EU has also flexed its imperialistic muscles to project European border practices to the wider neighbouring region, in an attempt to export control and therefore once again export its borders to a worldwide level." (p. 3)

[60] Eldridge, C., Kalter, C., & Taylor, B. (2023). Migrations of Decolonization, Welfare, and the Unevenness of Citizenship in the UK, France and Portugal. Past and Present. "Decree-Law 308-A/75 from 24 June 1975 stripped most people from or in the colonies of their Portuguese citizenship, stating that the independence of their territories nullified the 'Portuguese nationality' they had held 'until that date'." (p. 168)

[61] Migrants' Rights Network. (2024, June 19). Colonialism and imperialism cause displacement: World Refugee Day. "In Iraq, the conditions for displacement can be traced to Britain's desire to accumulate Iraqi natural oil resources, as well as British colonial economic structures, and US and UK foreign policy, whilst in Syria, displacement has been intensified by US and UK foreign policy invasions, and can also be traced to sectarianism as a direct legacy of French colonialism." (p. 9)

[69] O'Dwyer, C. (2018). A Postcolonial Analysis of the European 'Migrant Crisis'. E-International Relations. "The migrant crisis has created a mirror by which the West is forced to look back on itself and its past colonial pursuits, and it is apparent through the policies, discourse and general fearfulness in Europe, that many do not like this reflection." (p. 2)

[71] Migrants' Rights Network. (2024, June 19). Colonialism and imperialism cause displacement: World Refugee Day. "Just as Ukrainian refugees¹ were given protection, we must also give Black, Brown and other racialised refugees the same attention, solidarity and respect. This includes understanding the root causes of their movement, and amplifying their stories." (p. 2)

[72] O'Dwyer, C. (2018). A Postcolonial Analysis of the European 'Migrant Crisis'. E-International Relations. "In recent European immigration policies and media narratives it appears that the guilt has all but dissipated and has instead been replaced with a deep-rooted feeling of aversion, evident for example in the UK government's policy of creating a 'hostile environment for migrants' in order to discourage them from coming to the UK." (p. 4)

[73] Eldridge, C., Kalter, C., & Taylor, B. (2023). Migrations of Decolonization, Welfare, and the Unevenness of Citizenship in the UK, France and Portugal. Past and Present. "By the time Anglo-Egyptian refugees began arriving in significant numbers in January 1957, over fifteen thousand Hungarians had already been brought to Britain as part of its contribution to the UNHCR-led resettlement programme. And here they, at least initially, found an enthusiastic welcome, with people opening their homes to them, donating money and clothes and making offers of housing and work." (p. 171)

Section 4

[18] Liu, C. Y. (Ed.). (2021). Immigrant entrepreneurship in cities: Global perspectives (The Urban Book Series). Springer Nature Switzerland AG. "Other ethnic groups such as the Portuguese in Toronto, who, like their Pakistani and Turkish counterparts, largely arrived as low-skilled labor migrants in the mid-twentieth century, used their locally-acquired training to open their own businesses in manufacturing (Teixeira et al. 2007; Sahin et al. 2014) and construction (Teixeira et al. 2007)." (p. 27)

[19] Hermes, K., & Leicht, R. (2010). Scope and characteristics of immigrant entrepreneurship in Europe: A cross-national comparison of European countries (Working Paper). University of Mannheim, Institute for Small Business Research. "Self-employed EU immigrants in the UK and France as well as Non-EU immigrants in Portugal have a relative stronger orientation towards the building industry... As shown by Winch (1998), subcontractors play an important role in this sector in the UK." (p. 16)

[20] Liu, C. Y. (Ed.). (2021). Immigrant entrepreneurship in cities: Global perspectives (The Urban Book Series). Springer Nature Switzerland AG. "Consequentially, the businesses of second-generation Turkish migrants since the 1990s have been increasingly serving mainstream clientele in diverse service sectors such as medicine, business services, and IT (Miera 2017)." (p. 27)

[21] Hermes, K., & Leicht, R. (2010). Scope and characteristics of immigrant entrepreneurship in Europe: A cross-national comparison of European countries (Working Paper). University of Mannheim, Institute for Small Business Research. "Self-employed EU immigrants work proportionally more often in (semi-)professional occupations than Non-EU immigrants – and in some countries more than natives." (p. 13)

[22] Hermes, K., & Leicht, R. (2010). Scope and characteristics of immigrant entrepreneurship in Europe: A cross-national comparison of European countries (Working Paper). University of Mannheim, Institute for Small Business Research. "In times of economic insecurity, high unemployment, and altering markets, opportunities and employment outcomes are changing. In this context, immigrant entrepreneurship increasingly becomes a topic in research and politics. The European Commission, for example, recognizes that 'Ethnic minority businesses in Europe display a strong entrepreneurial capacity and potential' (European Commission, 2003, p. 14)." (p. 3)

[23] Liu, C. Y. (Ed.). (2021). Immigrant entrepreneurship in cities: Global perspectives (The Urban Book Series). Springer Nature Switzerland AG. "Growth in entrepreneurship among second-generation Moroccans who open more businesses outside of the co-ethnic enclave in high-skilled services like IT and professional services than their first-generation co-ethnic counterparts (Baycan et al. 2012; Rušinović 2006)." (p. 30)

[24] Hoxhalli, G., Ulaj, G., & Kola, V. (2024). Immigrant entrepreneurship in Europe: Insights from a bibliometric analysis. International Journal of Management Science and Business Administration, 10(6), 7–18. "Europe has encountered several obstacles during the Arab Spring, including the issue of refugees, a distinct form of immigration. It is noteworthy that refugee entrepreneurship has emerged as a prominent and popular subject of discussion." (p. 10)

[25] Hermes, K., & Leicht, R. (2010). Scope and characteristics of immigrant entrepreneurship in Europe: A cross-national comparison of European countries (Working Paper). University of Mannheim, Institute for Small Business Research. "Self-employed EU immigrants are more often in (semi-)professional occupations than natives in nearly all countries... The percentage of (semi-)professional self-employed EU immigrants is highest in Austria and the southern countries Spain, Portugal, and Greece." (p. 12)

[26] Hoxhalli, G., Ulaj, G., & Kola, V. (2024). Immigrant entrepreneurship in Europe: Insights from a bibliometric analysis. International Journal of Management Science and Business Administration, 10(6), 7–18. "The number of these individuals is constantly growing, and we observe it from the difference between the year 2000, where we have 173 million emigrants, to 10 years later, with 220 million, and lastly, in 2019, almost 272 million migrants. These numbers keep growing mostly because of globalization." (p. 2)

[27] Hermes, K., & Leicht, R. (2010). Scope and characteristics of immigrant entrepreneurship in Europe: A cross-national comparison of European countries (Working Paper). University of Mannheim, Institute for Small Business Research. "Opportunities for establishing a business are further directed by the status of industrialisation, technology or the tertiarisation of jobs, and thereby reflect the 'entrepreneurial regime' of a country (Sternberg, 2004)." (p. 6)

[28] Hermes, K., & Leicht, R. (2010). Scope and characteristics of immigrant entrepreneurship in Europe: A cross-national comparison of European countries (Working Paper). University of Mannheim, Institute for Small Business Research. "The modernisation process enhances the level and outcome of immigrant entrepreneurship – at least regarding household-related services. This is especially the case in some northern and western European countries." (p. 20)

[29] Editorial. (2015). The agrarian question in the North: Contemporary trends, historic challenges. Agrarian South: Journal of Political Economy, 4(1), vii-xii. "South–North migration is a post-colonial reality that will endure in the twenty-first century; the agrarian question would do well to take note." (p. 3)

[30] Editorial. (2015). The agrarian question in the North: Contemporary trends, historic challenges. Agrarian South: Journal of Political Economy, 4(1), vii-xii. "Such an objective must now include the immigrant populations which have a historic right to work and live as citizens in their Northern countries of settlement." (p. 3)

[31] Editorial. (2015). The agrarian question in the North: Contemporary trends, historic challenges. Agrarian South: Journal of Political Economy, 4(1), vii-xii. "Monopolistic control of the world's agricultural, energy and other natural resources sustains a militaristic system of overproduction, based upon polarized consumption and abuse of the planet's resources." (p. 4)

[32] Hoxhalli, G., Ulaj, G., & Kola, V. (2024). Immigrant entrepreneurship in Europe: Insights from a bibliometric analysis. International Journal of Management Science and Business Administration, 10(6), 7–18. "The main finding of our study is the significant change in studies on immigrant entrepreneurship in Europe, commonly referred to as a paradigm shift. In the past, immigrants were often perceived as being motivated to move owing to a lack of skills or experiencing prejudice. However, in recent years, there has been a shift towards studying immigration from an opportunity-driven perspective." (p. 10)

[33] Liu, C. Y. (Ed.). (2021). Immigrant entrepreneurship in cities: Global perspectives (The Urban Book Series). Springer Nature Switzerland AG. "Second-generation migrant business owners who either inherit existing businesses or start their own use their advanced education and familiarity with the local culture to build businesses in both the knowledge-based and cultural consumption economies, and their businesses generally serve both mainstream and co-ethnic clients." (p. 38)

Section 5

[34] Fassio, C., Montobbio, F., & Venturini, A. (2018). Skilled Migration and Innovation in European Industries. Research Policy, 47(4), 11–23. "Our results show that highly-educated migrants have a positive effect on innovation and the effect is about one third the one of the skilled natives." (p. 3)

[35] Fassio, C., Montobbio, F., & Venturini, A. (2018). Skilled Migration and Innovation in European Industries. Research Policy, 47(4), 11–23. "Skilled migrants are more likely to be employed than natives in S&E occupations because S&E knowledge is more codified, it transfers more easily across countries and it does not rely on location specific institutional or cultural knowledge, like political sciences, law or medicine (Chiswick and Taengnoi 2007; Sparber, 2010)." (p. 4)

[36] Fassio, C., Montobbio, F., & Venturini, A. (2018). Skilled Migration and Innovation in European Industries. Research Policy, 47(4), 11–23. "Medical, Precision and Optical Instruments: 6.10 patents per 1,000 workers [...] with a higher share of tertiary-educated EU nationals." (p. 14)

[37] Fassio, C., Montobbio, F., & Venturini, A. (2018). Skilled Migration and Innovation in European Industries. Research Policy, 47(4), 11–23. "In sectors with high R&D intensity, the coefficient for skilled migrants' innovation impact is 40% higher than in low R&D sectors." (p. 18)

[38] Williams, G. A., Jacob, G., Rakovac, I., Scotter, C., & Wismar, M. (2020). Health professional mobility in the WHO European Region and the WHO Global Code of Practice: Data from the joint OECD/EUROSTAT/WHO-Europe questionnaire. European Journal of Public Health, 30(Suppl 4), iv5–iv11. "In 2018, foreign-trained doctors in the UK constituted 29.2% of the physician workforce (51,115 doctors). [...] Switzerland reported 34.1% of its physicians as foreign-trained (12,570 doctors), while Ireland had 41.6% (9,583 doctors)." (p. 4)

[39] Eurostat. (2024). Healthcare personnel statistics - physicians. Statistics Explained. "Bulgaria and Italy had the largest shares of physicians aged 55 years and over [...] (54.0% and 53.9%, respectively). [...] The highest proportions of younger physicians (under 35 years) were in Malta (46.1%) and Romania (34.6%)." (p. 4)

[40] Williams, G. A., Jacob, G., Rakovac, I., Scotter, C., & Wismar, M. (2020). Health professional mobility in the WHO European Region and the WHO Global Code of Practice: Data from the joint OECD/EUROSTAT/WHO-Europe questionnaire. European Journal of Public Health, 30(Suppl 4), iv5–iv11. "India, Philippines, Belgium, Germany and Romania were the top five countries of training for foreign-trained nurses in case study countries in 2018." (p. 6)

[41] Eurostat. (2024). Healthcare personnel statistics - physicians. Statistics Explained. "Directive 2005/36/EC on the recognition of professional qualifications provides an EU-wide legal framework enabling EU countries to recognise qualifications of health professionals from other EU countries. [...] Health professionals [...] enjoy automatic recognition [...] to practise anywhere else in the EU." (p. 8)

[42] Fassio, C., Montobbio, F., & Venturini, A. (2018). Skilled Migration and Innovation in European Industries. Research Policy, 47(4), 11–23. "A recent OECD report shows an increase of 13 million in the total number high skilled migrants from 2001 to 2011, reaching a total number equal to 31 million. In addition the share of the highly educated among all migrants rose to 30% in 2010/11 from 25% in 2000/01." (p. 6)

[43] Fassio, C., Montobbio, F., & Venturini, A. (2018). Skilled Migration and Innovation in European Industries. Research Policy, 47(4), 11–23. "Our evidence suggests that innovation in Europe would benefit from policies that favor the entrance of potential workers with tertiary education, or with advanced degrees, such as masters' degrees and doctorates in these areas. In fact national policies (at least, in the Netherlands, Sweden and the UK) and the European Blue Card (used extensively in Germany) try to facilitate the recruitment of highly-skilled workers." (p. 22)

[44] Eurostat. (2024). Healthcare personnel statistics - physicians. Statistics Explained. "In 2022, there were an estimated 15.5 medical doctors graduating in the EU for every 100 000 inhabitants. [...] The highest ratios were recorded in Bulgaria (29.5 [...]), Malta (27.7 [...]), Latvia (27.5 [...]), Romania (26.1 [...]) and Ireland (25.7 [...])." (p. 6)