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Section 2 Footnotes
1. Buarque, B. L. (2024). The power of the alt-right multitude: How and why alt-right conspiracy theories have been legitimised in online spaces (Doctoral thesis, University of Manchester). University of Manchester. "The replacement echoed by the great replacement theory is felt simultaneously on racial, ethnical and cultural levels: not only whites will be supposedly replaced but also Europeans and the civilisation, freedom and education allegedly built by them" (p. 64).
2. Buarque, B. L. (2024). The power of the alt-right multitude: How and why alt-right conspiracy theories have been legitimised in online spaces (Doctoral thesis, University of Manchester). University of Manchester. "Non-whites/non-Westerners are constantly blamed for having supposedly enjoyed some fullness in terms of territory, public benefits, jobs as well as freedom and the bodies of white/Western women. The main objects of desire structured by fantasies animated by the great replacement theory are full freedom (it is as if white/Western people could no longer walk freely on the streets), full access to territories, full access to public benefits and jobs, full access to white women’s bodies and full access to white/Western men’s wealth" (p. 103).
3. Buarque, B. L. (2024). The power of the alt-right multitude: How and why alt-right conspiracy theories have been legitimised in online spaces (Doctoral thesis, University of Manchester). University of Manchester. "With Renaud Camus and his book Le Grand Remplacement published in 2011, the great replacement was popularised as a theory, authoritatively advancing the belief that ‘white European populations are being deliberately replaced at an ethnic and cultural level through the migration and the growth of minority communities’" (p. 63-64).
4. Ekman, M. (2022). The great replacement: Strategic mainstreaming of far-right conspiracy claims. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 28(4), 1127–1143. "Since the refugee crisis in 2015, elements of the ‘replacement’ conspiracy theory have amplified various (far-right) political discourses across Europe" (p. 1127-1128).
5. Pietiläinen, S., & Kellokumpu, V. (2024). Political geographies of the far-right: The environment, space and ideology in a warming world. Nordia Geographical Publications, 53(1), 5-12. "National purity and a strong hierarchical state are pursued by building border walls and excluding the ‘other’ from the 'nation’s living space', territory, but also by redrawing the social boundaries and hierarchies within the nation through verbal, symbolic or physical violence towards those who are understood as ‘deviant’ and a threat to the nation and its patriarchal social orders (e.g. LBTQ communities and feminists)" (p. 6).
6. Buarque, B. L. (2024). The power of the alt-right multitude: How and why alt-right conspiracy theories have been legitimised in online spaces (Doctoral thesis, University of Manchester). University of Manchester. "Besides having his theory accessible on virtual and physical book shops, Camus is also the president of the National Council of European Resistance, an institution that intends to ‘bring together qualified personalities, French and European, who aspire to work for the defence of European civilisation to oppose the phenomenon of substitution of peoples’" (p. 64).
7. Davis, M. (2024). Violence as method: the "white replacement", "white genocide", and "Eurabia" conspiracy theories and the biopolitics of networked violence. Ethnic and Racial Studies. "Another source is René Binet’s Théorie du Racisme (1950), which linked capitalism to race-mixing. A Trotskyist turned Fascist, Théorie du Racisme formed part of Binet’s project to promote 'biological realism' (a term influential among the French Nouvelle Droite and US alt-right), racial separatism and a 'white world'" (p. 5).
8. Davis, M. (2024). Violence as method: the "white replacement", "white genocide", and "Eurabia" conspiracy theories and the biopolitics of networked violence. Ethnic and Racial Studies. "Madison Grant’s The Passing of the Great Race (1916) built on this legacy with claims that Americans of Nordic stock were being pushed out and outbred by 'alien people', namely Jews and immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe" (p. 7).
9. Ekman, M. (2022). The great replacement: Strategic mainstreaming of far-right conspiracy claims. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 28(4), 1127–1143. "The term itself rose to fame when it was used as a book title by French philosopher Renaud Camus (2012). Camus is an influential theorist within the French far-right ‘identitarian’ movement, a ‘third-position’ extreme-right current that has spread across several European countries over the past few decades" (p. 1130).
10. Ekman, M. (2022). The great replacement: Strategic mainstreaming of far-right conspiracy claims. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 28(4), 1127–1143. "‘The Great Replacement’ connects ‘contemporary expressions of Islamophobia with centuries-old anti-Semitism’ through the use of empty signifiers such as ‘the global elites’ (rather than Jews or ‘ZOG’) as perpetrators, and by deploying updated slogans such as ‘genocide by substitution’, rather than ‘white genocide’" (p. 1131).
11. Ekman, M. (2022). The great replacement: Strategic mainstreaming of far-right conspiracy claims. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 28(4), 1127–1143. "Far-right politicians like Viktor Orbán have integrated elements of the Great Replacement theory into their political discourse to bolster nationalist agendas" (p. 1133).
12. Ekman, M. (2022). The great replacement: Strategic mainstreaming of far-right conspiracy claims. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 28(4), 1127–1143. "The Christchurch mosque shooter explicitly referenced the theory in his manifesto, demonstrating how these ideas can incite real-world violence" (p. 1135).
13. Buarque, B. L. (2024). The power of the alt-right multitude: How and why alt-right conspiracy theories have been legitimised in online spaces (Doctoral thesis, University of Manchester). University of Manchester. "The narrative perpetuated by the Great Replacement theory often portrays Jews as the masterminds behind global immigration, collaborating with liberal elites to replace white populations" (p. 65).
14. Ekman, M. (2022). The great replacement: Strategic mainstreaming of far-right conspiracy claims. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 28(4), 1127–1143. "This historical misuse extends to the conflation of demographic changes with apocalyptic outcomes, suggesting that the influx of non-European immigrants will culminate in the end of Western civilization as it was created by white Europeans" (p. 1132).
15. Davis, M. (2024). Violence as method: the "white replacement", "white genocide", and "Eurabia" conspiracy theories and the biopolitics of networked violence. Ethnic and Racial Studies. "The theory’s modern proponents often draw on these historical ideologies to frame immigration and multiculturalism as existential threats" (p. 8).
16. Davis, M. (2024). Violence as method: the "white replacement", "white genocide", and "Eurabia" conspiracy theories and the biopolitics of networked violence. Ethnic and Racial Studies. "The Great Replacement theory has become a central element in the narrative used by far-right groups to justify violent actions against immigrants and minorities" (p. 8).
17. Davis, M. (2024). Violence as method: the "white replacement", "white genocide", and "Eurabia" conspiracy theories and the biopolitics of networked violence. Ethnic and Racial Studies. "The apocalyptic tone of 'cultural Marxism' within the theory advances the belief that white Americans have been prevented from exercising freedom of thought and speech due to the infiltration of non-European values" (p. 9).
18. Buarque, B. L. (2024). The power of the alt-right multitude: How and why alt-right conspiracy theories have been legitimised in online spaces (Doctoral thesis, University of Manchester). University of Manchester. "The theory’s narrative of an existential threat serves to justify extreme measures, including policies aimed at restricting immigration and promoting racial purity" (p. 104).
19. Davis, M. (2024). Violence as method: the "white replacement", "white genocide", and "Eurabia" conspiracy theories and the biopolitics of networked violence. Ethnic and Racial Studies. “As noted above, the “Eurabia” conspiracy theory predates and is a source for Camus’s Le Grand Remplacement. An early source is Oriana Fallaci’s book The Force of Reason (2004), which argues that European and Arab elites have con- spired to swap oil for the passage of Arab immigrants into Europe. Such immi- grants, according to Fallaci, “breed like rats”, corrupting Europe to the extent that, as she wrote in a 2005 essay, “Europe is no longer Europe, it is ‘Eurabia’, a colony of Islam” (Bracke and Hernández Aguilar 2020, 684). The main populariser of the Eurabia theory is the Swiss-Israeli author Giselle Littman in books and pseudo-academic papers published under the name Bat Ye’Or, most notably in Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis (2005), which argues that the EU has conspired with leaders in Muslim majority countries in North Africa and the Middle East in a plot to impose Islamic Law on Europe.” (p. 8)
Section 3 Footnotes
20. Pew Research Center. (2015). Modern immigration wave brings 59 million to U.S., driving population growth and change through 2065: Views of immigration’s impact on U.S. society mixed. https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2015/09/28/modern-immigration-wave-brings-59-million-to-u-s-driving-population-growth-and-change-through-2065/. "Between 1965 and 2015, new immigrants, their children and their grandchildren accounted for 55% of U.S. population growth. They added 72 million people to the nation’s population as it grew from 193 million in 1965 to 324 million in 2015" (Pew Research Center, 2015, p. 7).
21. Pew Research Center. (2015). Modern immigration wave brings 59 million to U.S., driving population growth and change through 2065: Views of immigration’s impact on U.S. society mixed. https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2015/09/28/modern-immigration-wave-brings-59-million-to-u-s-driving-population-growth-and-change-through-2065/. "If current demographic trends continue, future immigrants and their descendants will be an even bigger source of population growth. Between 2015 and 2065, they are projected to account for 88% of the U.S. population increase, or 103 million people, as the nation grows to 441 million" (Pew Research Center, 2015, p. 6).
22. Pew Research Center. (2015). Modern immigration wave brings 59 million to U.S., driving population growth and change through 2065: Views of immigration’s impact on U.S. society mixed. https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2015/09/28/modern-immigration-wave-brings-59-million-to-u-s-driving-population-growth-and-change-through-2065/ "Immigrants contribute to population growth because of both their own numbers and their above-average fertility. Most of those who immigrate are working-age adults, so immigrants are more likely than U.S.-born residents to be in their child-bearing years. They also have higher age-adjusted birth rates than people born in the U.S." (Pew Research Center, 2015, p. 26).
23. Pew Research Center. (2015). Modern immigration wave brings 59 million to U.S., driving population growth and change through 2065: Views of immigration’s impact on U.S. society mixed. https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2015/09/28/modern-immigration-wave-brings-59-million-to-u-s-driving-population-growth-and-change-through-2065/. "The nation’s population grew by 131 million people from 1965 to 2015, and 72 million of them are linked to immigration—that is, they are immigrants who arrived during this period or they are their children or grandchildren. If no immigrants had entered the country after 1965, when the U.S. population numbered 193 million, the nation’s population still would have grown—to 252 million people by 2015, rather than 324 million. The population would have grown by less than half as much as it actually did (30% vs. 67% growth)" (Pew Research Center, 2015, p. 29).
24. Pew Research Center. (2015). Modern immigration wave brings 59 million to U.S., driving population growth and change through 2065: Views of immigration’s impact on U.S. society mixed. https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2015/09/28/modern-immigration-wave-brings-59-million-to-u-s-driving-population-growth-and-change-through-2065/. "Immigration is the primary reason behind the striking growth in the nation’s Hispanic and Asian populations since passage of the 1965 immigration law that ended a visa system favoring Europe over other regions of the world. Immigrants and their descendants account for most growth in the Hispanic population (76%) and virtually all growth in the Asian population (98%) from 1965 to 2015" (Pew Research Center, 2015, p. 27).
25. Stannard, D. E. (1992). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press. ”Few informed scholars any longer contend that it was not at least within the general range of 75 to 100,000,000 persons, with roughly 8,000,000 to 12,000,000 living north of Mexico-while some of the more outstanding scholars in the field have begun to suspect that the true figure was even higher than the highest end of this range." (Stannard, 1992, p. 268).
26. Edmonston, B. (2016). Canada’s immigration trends and patterns. Canadian Studies in Population, 43(1-2), 78-116. https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/csp/index.php/csp/article/view/25395. "Immigration has increased in significance in recent decades as one of the key factors influencing population change" (Edmonston, 2016, p. 78).
27. Edmonston, B. (2016). Canada’s immigration trends and patterns. Canadian Studies in Population, 43(1-2), 78-116. https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/csp/index.php/csp/article/view/25395. "The 2011 census counted 6.8 million foreign-born residents in Canada. By comparison, the 1901 census enumerated less than one million foreign-born" (Edmonston, 2016, p. 82).
28. Edmonston, B. (2016). Canada’s immigration trends and patterns. Canadian Studies in Population, 43(1-2), 78-116. https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/csp/index.php/csp/article/view/25395. "Canada’s future population growth will depend primarily on net immigration. Between 2008 and 2009, the population increased by 353,000, with 147,000 due to natural increase (the excess of births minus deaths) and 206,000 due to net immigration. Between 2035 and 2036, the population is projected to increase by 342,000, with natural increase accounting for 61,000 and net immigration accounting for 281,000. Stated differently, 82 per cent of annual growth will be due to net immigration in 2036, compared to 58 per cent of annual growth in 2009" (Edmonston, 2016, p. 78).
29. Johnson, K. M., & Lichter, D. T. (2008). Natural increase: A new source of population growth in emerging Hispanic destinations in the United States. Population and Development Review, 34(2), 327-346. "In established Hispanic counties, natural increase offsets a slight decrease in migration gain, allowing for continued modest growth (1.5 percent annually) between 2000 and 2005" (Johnson & Lichter, 2008, p. 341).
30. Carey, D. (2019). Improving well-being in New Zealand through migration. OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1566. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. https://doi.org/10.1787/f80dd3e3-en "Empirical evidence suggests that immigration has had small positive effects on per capita incomes and has not adversely affected the wage or employment outcomes of the average NZ-born worker." (Carey, p. 3).
31. Hodgson, R., & Poot, J. (2010). New Zealand research on the economic impacts of immigration 2005-2010: Synthesis and research agenda (CReAM Discussion Paper No. 04/11). Centre for Research and Analysis of Migration, Department of Economics, University College London .https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/295380/1/cream-dp1104.pdf. "Once migrants are in New Zealand for more than 10–15 years, their labour market outcomes are predominantly determined by the same success factors as those for the New Zealand born. Migration increases trade and tourism, both inbound and outbound. The net fiscal impact of immigration is positive" (Hodgson & Poot, 2010, p. ii).
32. Carey, D. (2019). Improving well-being in New Zealand through migration. OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1566. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. https://doi.org/10.1787/f80dd3e3-en "New Zealand has refined the migration system over the years to attract those who are more likely to ease labour shortages and, should they apply for residence, have better earnings prospects." (Carey, p. 3).
33. Burkimsher, M., Rossier, C., & Wanner, P. (2018). Who has more children in Switzerland: Swiss or foreign women? Why the TFR is a misleading measure. LIVES Working Paper, 73. https://doi.org/10.12682/lives.2296-1658.2018.73. "The current published statistics are open to misinterpretation biased against immigrants, yet these are also published by other national statistical offices, such as the UK. The TFR of foreign women is also commonly discussed in the demographic literature, as if it reflected ‘real’ (cohort) fertility" (Burkimsher, Rossier, & Wanner, 2018, p. 29).
34. Burkimsher, M., Rossier, C., & Wanner, P. (2018). Who has more children in Switzerland: Swiss or foreign women? Why the TFR is a misleading measure. LIVES Working Paper, 73. https://doi.org/10.12682/lives.2296-1658.2018.73. "The reason the TFR is so unhelpful in characterising immigrant fertility is because there is, commonly, a high intensity of childbearing in the years immediately after arrival in the new country following subdued fertility in the years preceding migration (Ng and Nault 1997; Robards and Berrington 2016; Toulemon and Mazuy 2004)" (Burkimsher et al., 2018, p. 3).
35. Burkimsher, M., Rossier, C., & Wanner, P. (2018). Who has more children in Switzerland: Swiss or foreign women? Why the TFR is a misleading measure. LIVES Working Paper, 73. https://doi.org/10.12682/lives.2296-1658.2018.73. "The TFR gives an inflated impression of the ultimate fertility of foreign women, and under-estimates that of Swiss women, because foreign women are only in the receiving country (Switzerland) for the most fertile portion of their reproductive career" (Burkimsher et al., 2018, p. 1).
36. Burkimsher, M., Rossier, C., & Wanner, P. (2018). Who has more children in Switzerland: Swiss or foreign women? Why the TFR is a misleading measure. LIVES Working Paper, 73. https://doi.org/10.12682/lives.2296-1658.2018.73. "To summarise, data on actual family sizes (FGS and STATPOP) indicate that foreign women, by the age of 39, have lower fertility than Swiss women" (Burkimsher et al., 2018, p. 14).
37. Teitelbaum, M. S. (2004). The media marketplace for garbled demography. Population and Development Review, 30(2), 317-327. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2233865914534428. "Meanwhile, demographers routinely caution that long-term demographic projections are far from credible as forecasts. Instead they are entirely products of the assumptions built into them about long-term future trends in fertility, mortality, and migration, trends that are in fact literally unknowable. Demographers warn that long-range projections cannot be interpreted as forecasts and that the range of error involved in such use is likely to be large and to increase with each successive time period. Unfortunately, such caveats are often lost in the sequence of translations from demographic study, to press release, to longer journalistic treatment. Careful demographic studies and reports typically detail the technical complexities of the data and analyses involved, and emphasize the ambiguities and uncertainties of many findings" (Teitelbaum, 2004, p. 317).
38. Teitelbaum, M. S. (2004). The media marketplace for garbled demography. Population and Development Review, 30(2), 317-327. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2233865914534428. "Yet the actual conclusions of Replacement Migration differed sharply from its portrayal in the press. Its key conclusions may be briefly summarized as follows : —In countries with very low fertility rates, halting demographic aging through immigration policy would require extraordinarily large numbers of immigrants. —Such a high level of immigration “seems out of reach because of the extraordinarily large numbers of migrants that would be required.” For example, the report’s scenario that specifies a constant ratio of working-age to 'dependent' populations (defined respectively as ages 15–64 and 65+) would require admission of some 188 million immigrants to Germany between 2000 and 2050 (who, with their offspring, would then account for some 80 percent of the population in Germany). For Italy, the comparable numbers under this scenario would be 120 million immigrants (79 percent of the 2050 population); for the EU as a whole, the scenario would produce a flow of 700 million immigrants over the 50-year period (accounting for 75 percent of the 2050 EU population). For Japan, the scenario would require admission of 553 million, who by 2050 would account for 87 percent of Japan’s population" (Teitelbaum, 2004, p. 324-325).
39. American Immigration Council. (2015). The criminalization of immigration in the United States. Retrieved June 24, 2024, from https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/criminalization-immigration-united-states. “Between 1990 and 2013, the foreign-born share of the U.S. population grew from 7.9 percent to 13.1 percent and the number of unauthorized immigrants more than tripled from 3.5 million to 11.2 million. During the same period, FBI data indicate that the violent crime rate declined 48 percent—which included falling rates of aggravated assault, robbery, rape, and murder. Likewise, the property crime rate fell 41 percent, including declining rates of motor vehicle theft, larceny/robbery, and burglary.”
40. Pew Research Center. (2015). Modern immigration wave brings 59 million to U.S., driving population growth and change through 2065: Views of immigration’s impact on U.S. society mixed. https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2015/09/28/modern-immigration-wave-brings-59-million-to-u-s-driving-population-growth-and-change-through-2065/. "The third-and-higher generations—those born in the U.S. to U.S.-born parents—will grow more slowly, by 17% over the next five decades. This group now makes up about three-quarters (74%) of the U.S. population, but it will decline to about two-thirds (64%) in 2065" (Pew Research Center, 2015, p. 26).
41. Bolin, T. (2006). The economic and fiscal impacts of immigration. University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0xr4267w. "In 1999, The Wall Street Journal reported that 'Chinese and Indian immigrants run nearly 25% of the high-tech companies started in the [Silicon] Valley since 1980…. The 2,775 immigrant-run companies had total sales of $16.8 billion and more than 58,000 employees'" (Bolin, 2006, p. 12).
42. Johnson, K. M., & Lichter, D. T. (2008). Natural increase: A new source of population growth in emerging Hispanic destinations in the United States. Population and Development Review, 34(2), 327-346. "Hispanics are spatially concentrated in metropolitan areas: some 92.7 percent of the Hispanic population resided there in 2000, representing some 14 percent of all metro residents. Yet, they accounted for over half (50.6 percent) of all metro growth between 2000 and 2006" (Johnson & Lichter, 2008, p. 333).
43. Cholezas, I., & Tsakloglou, P. (2008). The economic impact of immigration in Greece: Taking stock of the existing evidence. IZA Discussion Papers, No. 3754, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23534149_The_Economic_Impact_of_Immigration_in_Greece_Taking_Stock_of_the_Existing_Evidence. “Despite the fact that the idea that immigrants replace natives and, thus, increase unemployment among the latter is widely spread among the general public, Fakiolas & King (1996), Iosifidis & King (1998), and Fakiolas (1999) argue that this is not the case for Greece, since immigrants are usually employed in jobs that the natives turn down" (Cholezas & Tsakloglou, 2008, p. 14).
44. Edmonston, B. (2016). Canada’s immigration trends and patterns. Canadian Studies in Population, 43(1-2), 78-116. https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/csp/index.php/csp/article/view/25395. "Since 1851, immigration flows to Canada have averaged around 120,000 arrivals per year, with considerable variation from the peaks during the 1900s, 1910s, and 1950s to the valleys of the 1890s, late 1910s, 1930s, and early 1940s" (Edmonston, 2016, p. 79).
45. Grözinger, G., Langholz-Kaiser, M., & Richter, D. (2017). “Regional Innovation and Diversity: Effects of Cultural Diversity, Milieu Affiliation and Qualification Levels on Regional Patent Outputs.” Management Revue - Socio-Economic Studies, 28(2), 149-174. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5771/0935-9915-2017-2-149. In the German context, Niebuhr (2006) demonstrated that cultural diversity (measured by nationality), especially among high-skilled persons, can increase the performance of regional production processes in R&D sectors, and thus patent activities. She also finds a particularly strong influence in the field of high-skilled migration.” (Grözinger, G. Et al, 2017, p. 154)
46. Edmonston, B. (2016). Canada’s immigration trends and patterns. Canadian Studies in Population, 43(1-2), 78-116. https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/csp/index.php/csp/article/view/25395. "In the decade ending in 1911, there were 1,550,000 immigrants and 740,000 emigrants, producing a net immigration of 810,000. For the decade ending in 2011, there were almost 2,457,000 immigrants and 462,000 emigrants, yielding a net immigration gain of 1,995,000, more than twice as high as the net immigration for 1901–11" (Edmonston, 2016, p. 83).
47. Green, E. G. T., Sarrasin, O., & Fasel, N. (2015). Immigration: Social Psychological Aspects. In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed., pp. 675-681). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275769264_Immigration_Social_Psychological_Aspects. "Countries differ in the way they deal with diversity, recognition of immigrant minorities, and their incorporation in society. Multicultural and assimilationist integration policies, and the underlying ideologies, are frequently differentiated" (Green, Sarrasin, & Fasel, 2015, p. 679).
48. Green, E. G. T., Sarrasin, O., & Fasel, N. (2015). Immigration: Social Psychological Aspects. In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed., pp. 675-681). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275769264_Immigration_Social_Psychological_Aspects. "The very objectives of multicultural educational practices are to improve equality between immigrants and the national majority by conveying and establishing antiprejudice norms as well as increasing recognition of existing cultural differences" (Green, Sarrasin, & Fasel, 2015, p. 680).
49. Green, E. G. T., Sarrasin, O., & Fasel, N. (2015). Immigration: Social Psychological Aspects. In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed., pp. 675-681). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275769264_Immigration_Social_Psychological_Aspects. "Positive intergroup contact has been considered one of the most effective ways of reducing prejudice, especially among majority group member. In the context of immigration this implies that anti-immigrant prejudice of national majority members reduces when they have positive interactions with immigrants" (Green, Sarrasin, & Fasel, 2015, p. 678).
Section 4 Footnotes
50. Burns, J. P. (2023). Curriculum and the Problem of Violence. Routledge. "The 'show business of politics' (Bauman & Bordoni, 2014, p. 141) has been instrumental in the inflammation, and even the commodification (Taibbi, 2019) of the polemics that have damaged democratic political and public life, particularly as an ethics and aesthetics of education, self-cultivation, and social engagement" (Burns, 2023, p. 26).
51. Burns, J. P. (2023). Curriculum and the Problem of Violence. Routledge. "Former President Trump, for example, who as of this writing is once again campaigning for the US presidency, delivered a speech on June 13, 2023, immediately after his indictment on charges related to the possession of classified documents, in which he claimed: 'I am the only one that can save this nation because you know they’re not coming after me, they’re coming after you, and I just happen to be standing in their way. On November 5, 2024, justice with be done. We will take back our country, and we will make America great again'" (Burns, 2023, p. 25).
52. Burns, J. P. (2023). Curriculum and the Problem of Violence. Routledge. "The obsession with culture war issues, particularly those focused against schools and universities, portends, Masha Gessen (2020) concludes, a much broader and potentially violent anti-democratic project, reflected in the struggle over who is 'us'" (Burns, 2023, p. 151).
53. Burns, J. P. (2023). Curriculum and the Problem of Violence. Routledge. "Anti-politics have further reduced political parties to 'competing with each other over illusory problems that are designed to divert public attention from the real problems'" (Burns, 2023, p. 25).
54. Burns, J. P. (2023). Curriculum and the Problem of Violence. Routledge. "Politics reduced to polemical existential struggle eviscerates dialogic encounter and beckons the warring parties to the authoritarian impulse to censor, select elements of factual, imagined, or created pasts, or completely obliterate the past to serve the short-term will to power" (Burns, 2023, p. 26).
55. Burns, J. P. (2023). Curriculum and the Problem of Violence. Routledge. "During the 2022 and 2023 legislative sessions in the State of Florida, where I am a university professor, the legislature passed, and Republican Governor Ron DeSantis signed an assortment of legislation that could have lasting ramifications for education in Florida and perhaps beyond. Florida, long in the vanguard of neoliberal corporate 'school deform' (Pinar, 2012, p. 59), has assumed leadership in a broader anti-democratic project that bears many similarities, discussed below, to elements of fascism and the lethal function inherent in biopolitics. Governor DeSantis’s legislative and policy agenda during his tenure as Florida Governor has focused heavily on education, a proxy for his broader war against 'woke indoctrination' in public schools, universities, and private businesses (Florida Governor’s Office, 2022). DeSantis, who as of this writing is seeking the Republican Party nomination for the 2024 US presidential election, has made attacks on schools, teachers, university professors, and various critical educational disciplines central to his broader legislative and policy agenda, which includes abortion restrictions,2 assaults on public sector unions, virulent anti-immigrant policies,4 and legislation that threatens public protest and political dissent" (Burns, 2023, p. 34).
56. Burns, J. P. (2023). Curriculum and the Problem of Violence. Routledge. "Macron, in an election year, adopted right-wing populist rhetoric to implicate French academics in an Islamo-leftist conspiracy allegedly comprised of anti-capitalists and Islamic militants to garner conservative votes" (Burns, 2023, p. 109).
57. Burns, J. P. (2023). Curriculum and the Problem of Violence. Routledge. "In the US, the intensification of the culture wars in state and national politics, reflected in education by manufactured moral panics about critical race theory, gender and sexuality, diversity, parents’ rights, indoctrination, and critical scholarly disciplines, diverts public attention from other pressing issues, including an epidemic of mass shootings and the myriad of widening social, economic, political, health, and educational disparities" (Burns, 2023, p. 25).
58. Burns, J. P. (2023). Curriculum and the Problem of Violence. Routledge. "Macron’s accusation that French academia has been co-opted by American ideas, particularly anti-colonial and gender studies, elides both France’s colonial history and a substantial tradition of French scholarship that has, in fact, influenced academics globally" (Burns, 2023, p. 109).
Section 5 Footnotes
59. Thompson, A. I., Beveridge, M., McCabe, S., Ahern, M., Cortes, F., Axford, N., & Martinez Franks, J. (2024). Anti-Black political violence and the historical legacy of the great replacement conspiracy. Perspectives on Politics. Cambridge University Press. "Racial violence associated with the 'great replacement' conspiracy is much more pervasive among the white American public because of the historical legacy of anti-Black violent sentiment" (p. 1). https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592724000045.
60. Thompson, A. I., Beveridge, M., McCabe, S., Ahern, M., Cortes, F., Axford, N., & Martinez Franks, J. (2024). Anti-Black political violence and the historical legacy of the great replacement conspiracy. Perspectives on Politics. Cambridge University Press. "We ultimately find that simply priming attitudes about racial demographic change through a single open-ended question consistently leads to increased support for political violence, increasing racial resentment, and expressed anti-Black views" (p. 2). https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592724000045.
61. Thompson, A. I., Beveridge, M., McCabe, S., Ahern, M., Cortes, F., Axford, N., & Martinez Franks, J. (2024). Anti-Black political violence and the historical legacy of the great replacement conspiracy. Perspectives on Politics. Cambridge University Press. "Recent public discussion has considered perceptions of threat from racial demographic change in the context of the 'great replacement' conspiracy theory" (p. 2). https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592724000045.
62. Hege, C. A. D. (2022). White replacement theory in the United States of America (Master's thesis, Stony Brook University). Stony Brook University Digital Repository. "On Saturday afternoon May 14, 2022, Payton S. Gendron drove approximately 200 miles and entered the Tops Friendly Markets supermarket located in a predominantly Black neighborhood on the East Side of Buffalo, New York. He opened fire on the patrons of the establishment, killing 10 and injuring 3. Of the 13 shoppers shot, 11 were Black and 2 were White. In his manifesto, a far-right conspiracy theory called the Great Replacement was cited as a major inspiration for the attack" (p. 4).
63. Hege, C. A. D. (2022). White replacement theory in the United States of America (Master's thesis, Stony Brook University). Stony Brook University Digital Repository. "Researchers can estimate this influence among the American public using national surveys. For example, in a 2021 joint survey by the Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI) and American Values Survey (PRRI 2021) 31.2% of Americans indicated that they feel either 'strongly' or 'somewhat' threatened by the diversification of America. The joint survey revealed a partisan divide where American political groups have deeply entrenched polarized political views on diversity" (p. 5).
64. Hege, C. A. D. (2022). White replacement theory in the United States of America (Master's thesis, Stony Brook University). Stony Brook University Digital Repository. "WRT impacts American politics by perpetuating falsehoods about members of minority groups and the reality of immigration in the U.S. When politicians and the media refer to 'replacement' or use terms like 'invasion,' the idea of an idealized White-centric geographic area is evoked" (p. 18).
65. Farrell, A., & Lockwood, S. (2023). Addressing Hate Crime in the 21st Century: Trends, Threats, and Opportunities for Intervention. Annual Review of Criminology, 6, 107-130. "Hate crime victims more frequently experience lasting adverse reactions to their experiences compared to non-bias victims" (p. 113).
66. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. (2019). In the name of hate: Examining the federal government’s role in responding to hate crimes. "Hate crimes are increasing in America according to available evidence. Much of the evidence reflects massive underreporting of hate crimes. Many Americans are negatively impacted by hate crimes and are fearful of the heightened expression of hate and bigotry in the United States. It is critical hate crimes are addressed and prosecuted both because of their effects on victims and because their impact extends beyond the victims and impacts entire communities" (p. 5). https://www.usccr.gov/files/pubs/2019/11-13-In-the-Name-of-Hate.pdf.
67. Farrell, A., & Lockwood, S. (2023). Addressing Hate Crime in the 21st Century: Trends, Threats, and Opportunities for Intervention. Annual Review of Criminology, 6, 107-130. "Hate crimes are messages toward targeted communities to spread fear" (p. 116).
68. Farrell, A., & Lockwood, S. (2023). Addressing Hate Crime in the 21st Century: Trends, Threats, and Opportunities for Intervention. Annual Review of Criminology, 6, 107-130. "Direct experience of hate crime and vicarious trauma can have significant emotional, psychological, and physical impacts on victims and their communities" (p. 113).
69. Hege, C. A. D. (2022). White replacement theory in the United States of America (Master's thesis, Stony Brook University). Stony Brook University Digital Repository. "Proponents of WRT see the disruption of traditional values as a threat to their way of life, which can push them further towards anti-feminism, anti-multiculturalism, and racism" (p. 15).
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